Truman s Decision For Dropping The Nuclear Bombs - 856 Words

Japans assault on Pearl Harbor was what pushed the United Staes to end up in WWII. After numerous fights and losses against the Japanese, Truman knew the time had come to make a move to end this war. Variables that legitimize the dropping of the nuclear bombs are to anticipate any longer setbacks, reason impact on the soviet union, local legislative issues, and the come up short of the Potsdam Declaration. Contentions made against utilizing the bombs are the setbacks of guiltless lives, and Japans armed force at the purpose of falling. Truman s choice to drop the bombs was a helpful decision. The utilizing of the nuclear bombs likewise had its post-war clashes; radiation in Japan, and struggle between United States and Soviet Union. There has been numerous elements given to legitimize Truman s choice of dropping the nuclear bombs. The primary avocation given was that Truman needed to keep any longer setbacks from collecting. It was apparent that the Japanese would battle until the very end. Japanese suicide missions, kamikaze pilots, affirmed this comment. Moreover, another variable given to legitimize the dropping of the bombs was to show to the Soviet Union how effective the United States is. Truman and his guides were positively mindful of how the bomb may impact the Soviet initiative (778). Residential governmental issues is likewise another component that legitimizes the dropping of the bombs. So much cash and time was put into the Manhattan Project that itShow MoreRelatedPresident Truman And The Dropping Of The Atomic Bomb1280 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout history there have been many important decisions made by our presidents that have affected our country for the better and for the worse. Even thoug h people claim that they could have made better judgement calls than what have been decided, no one knows exactly what circumstances the president is under when the decisions have to be made. In the case of President Harry Truman and the dropping of the atomic bomb, many speculators say that it was a great way to resolve the war with Japan whileRead MoreThe Atomic Bomb Was A Revolutionary Invention1528 Words   |  7 Pagesreached its peak with the US dropping atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August of 1945. The atomic bomb was a revolutionary invention that raised many questions, most comprehensively, why? Why did we drop the atomic bombs? This question regarding the motivations behind dropping the atomic bomb has been mostly buried by the actual event. While Truman himself stated in an August 1945 radio address and further emphasized in his 1955 memoirs that the atomic bombs were dropped in order to â€Å"shortenRead MoreHarry S. Trumans Accomplishments: Dessegregation and Hiroshima1731 Words   |  7 PagesThe actions and decisions made by the United States President, leader of the free world, are subject to be analyzed, scrutinized, and debated for the rest of eternity. These decisions are how that man will be judged. Out of the 44 men to hold this honored position, one man, Harry S. Truman, made several proclamations such as the institution of Desegregation in the US Military, the dropping the atomic bombs, and the declaration of the Martial Law, which forever changed our society and the worldRead MorePresident Of The United States Essay1119 Words   |  5 Pagesmiddle of the war, America turned to Vice President Harry Truman. The American people were more than ready to end the war, but how? As Chief Executive of the United States it was no one’s but Truman job to do everything he could to finally put an end to World War II. He was very determined to achieve his and Roosevelts goal as quickly as possible. As soon as Truman learned about The Manhattan Project, he knew he was faced with a tough decision. The ability to end the war with the Japanese was in hisRead MoreAtomic Bomb Dbq949 Words   |  4 Pagesweapon, known as â€Å"the atomic bomb,† was used on the two Japanese cities: Hiroshima and Nagasaki, resulting in a death toll unprecedented by any military weapon used before and an immediate, unconditional surrender. Some historians believe President Truman decided to drop the atomic bomb in order to intimidate the Soviet Union whereas others believe it was a strictly military measure designed to force Japan’s unconditional surrender. In the Report of a Scientific Panel of nuclear physicists, some scientificRead MoreNuclear Strategic Game Between The United States And The Soviet Union913 Words   |  4 PagesEven though disaster was averted, the world came too close to destroying itself to let the lessons of October 1962 played from our memories. In this paper, I will show while the nuclear strategic game between the United States and the Soviet union was so dangerous. Good intelligence is crucial to making good decisions in such a dangerous situation. Acquiring that good intelligence pros to be quite dangerous and the Cuban missile crisis. Also complicating matters was the fact that the two leadersRead MoreDropping The Bomb Of Hiroshima And Nagasaki During World War II921 Words   |  4 PagesDropping the Bomb In 1945 America committed an act that some consider to be one of the most destructive acts in the world. It has been questioned why America would execute the devastating dropping of the bombs, nicknamed fat man and little boy, on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War two. One of the first and probably main factors for dropping the bombs was to end World War two as soon as possible. The cost of the war was steadily increasing and Truman wanted keep the cost as low as possibleRead MoreAtomic Bomb On Hiroshima, Japan, And The World War II983 Words   |  4 Pagesthen? President Truman thought so. In 1945, during the heightened onslaught of World War II with Japan, Harry S. Truman was faced with a difficult decision that would determine the future of the War and the future of our nation. Before Franklin D. Roosevelt passed away, he had been working on a secret, powerful, nuclear weapon that not even his Vice President knew about. This weapon was geared up and ready to end the War, but it came at a price. The radioactive material inside the bomb was only aboutRead MoreThe Dropping Of The Atomic Bomb1207 Words   |  5 PagesThe dropping of the atomic bombs in Japan was a very helpful source for the United States during the WWII. President Truman, took t he responsibility of dropping and creation of the atomic bomb. For the reason that The United States was seeking revenge on Japan for the attack at Pearl Harbor. The atomic bomb caused a high number of innocent Japanese deaths and also awful sickness. The atomic bombs left a big impact in the Japanese empire; also effected the Japanese at the time of the atomic bomb andRead MoreThe Nuclear Bomb: The Controversial Devision in World War II Essay899 Words   |  4 Pagesof the atomic bomb, President Truman made the most debated decision: the decision to use the most deadly weapon ever invented- the nuclear bomb. It was a very controversial decision. On one hand, the nuclear warheads ended World War II as quick as possible. On the other hand, it created mass destruction and devastated the two cities targeted: Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Some say that the United States did not have the right to deploy the two atomic bombs in Japan. The two atomic bombs killed more Japanese

Le Corbusier The Modern Architecture - 1604 Words

The report includes the introduction of Le Corbusier(October 6, 1887 – August 27, 1965), He is a French architect, designers, artists, writers, and one of the pioneers of now known as the modern architecture. He was born in Switzerland, and become a citizen of France in 1930. Career for five years, his buildings constructed in Europe, India and the United States.when he was young he love art so much,became older he went to paris learn architecture, but he had some disease,he had to choose another place to study, so he went to Germany, and meet a lot of famous person. And mention five point of ARCHITECTURE : 1:the pilotis elevating the mass off the ground. 2: the free plan, achieved through the separation of the load-bearing columns from the walls subdividing the space. 3:the free facade, the corollary of the freeplan in the vertical plane. 4: the long horizontal sliding window and finally. 5:the roof garden, restoring, supposedly, the area of ground covered by the house. The Villa Savoye is a contemporary outstanding architect. Located at poissy in Paris. Designed in 1928ï ¼Å'finished at 1930.It looked so simple, but it use the long horizontal sliding window, making house more sunshine. The Villa Savoye is probably Corbusier s best known building from the 1930s, it had biggest effect on international modernism. It was designed achieved his emblematic Five Points,The basic principle of his new architectural aesthetics: 1.Support of ground-level pilotis, elevating theShow MoreRelatedLe Corbusier s View Of Architecture Or Revolution?1572 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Architecture or Revolution?† in Le Corbusier’s belief was the only way to avoid class-based revolution in industrialized architecture (Quirk, 2012). Le Corbusier, born Charles Édouard Jeanneret, was born into an artistic family in 1877 in a small village in Switzerland. His mother was a pianist and his father was a designer of watch dials. Even though he learned piano and father’s trade he got interested in the architecture when he was 13 years old. He learned from L’Eplatenier, a teacher in LaRead MoreLe Corbusier s Influence On The Modern Era789 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Architecture or Revolution,† in Le Corbusier belief the only way to avoid class-based revolution is industrialized architecture (Quirk, 2012). Le Corbusier (Charles Édouard Jeanneret) was born in an artistic family in 1877 in a small village in the Swiss. His mother was a pianist and his father was a designer of watch dials. He learned piano and father’s trade, however the man brought him to architecture was his teacher in La Chaaux-de-Fund. When he was thirteen, his teacher, L’Eplatenier, who openedRead MoreLe Corbusier s Theory Of Architecture Or Revolution?1643 Words   |  7 Pagessigns from branch and vines of forests. â€Å"Architecture or Revolution?† in Le Corbusier’s belief was the only way to avoid class-based revolution in industrialized architecture (Quirk, 2012). Le Corbusier, born Charles Édouard Jeanneret, was born into an artistic family in 1877 in a small village in Switzerland. His mother was a pianist and his father was a designer of watch dials. Even though he learned piano and father’s trade he got interested in the architecture when he was 13 years old. He learnedRead MoreAnalyzing Le Corbusier s Principles And Their Legacy1070 Words   |  5 PagesVers une architecture ANALYZING LE CORBUSIER’S PRINCIPLES AND THEIR LEGACY When one thinks of what modern architecture is, most people think of skyscrapers in Dubai or rotating buildings in China. But, in fact, this is not true. Modern Architecture began in the early 1900’s, but really came into mainstream architecture with the help of influential architect such as Le Corbusier. The specific book that solidified Corbusier’s principles, and essentially promoted his manifesto, was Vers Une ArchitecureRead MoreBiography Of Charles Edouard Jeanneret, The French Architect, Designer And Writer1748 Words   |  7 Pages Le Corbusier Student: Siena Geddes, 7693990 Class: 20th Century Design Lecturer: Manfred Huber Date: 1st September 2014 Word Count: 1921â€Æ' Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris, better known as Le Corbusier, was a Swiss-French architect, designer, painter, urban planner and writer, active predominately in France, during the first half of the 20th century. Today, he is widely regarded to have been the most immensely influential architect, in terms of town planning and the architectural surroundingsRead MoreFive Points of Architecture Le Corbusier is one of the most significant architects from the 20th1100 Words   |  5 PagesFive Points of Architecture Le Corbusier is one of the most significant architects from the 20th century. He is known as one of the pioneers of modern architecture due to many of his ideas and ‘recipes’ within architecture. One of his most famous was ‘The Five Point of a New Architecture’ that he had explained in ‘LEsprit Nouveau’ and the book ‘Vers une architecture’, which he had been developing throughout the 1920s. Le Corbusier’ development of this idea altered the architectural promenade inRead MoreLe Corbusiers Church At Ronchamp1061 Words   |  5 PagesLe Corbusier was known for designing buildings and his theoretical works, which received considerable attention. His design had a strong impact on twentieth-century architecture and urbanism. Le Corbusier defined the five points (ukases) of good modernist design. His definition of the five point of architectural composition in modern architecture has been reformulated and commented by other famo us modern architecture . He was considered to be the first generations of International school of architectureRead More Le Corbusier Essay1559 Words   |  7 PagesLe Corbusier Architecture is the design of individual building and garden projects that make the realm of the voids visible, memorable and ultimately, useful. Crucial to the making of any city is the clear distinction of such projects by scale and character. Firstly, the definition of buildings and landscape that builds an urban collective form, a fabric. And secondly, civic and community buildings and gardens, physically distinguishable by their institutional purpose. Architecture and UrbanismRead MoreThe Photographic Representation Of One Building1549 Words   |  7 PagesMany famous architects have had their architecture promoted using photographs carefully constructed by a favourite photographer of theirs. Le Corbusier had Lucien Hervà ©. The well-known American photographer, Julius Shulman produced iconic photography of the Stahl house or Case Study House #22 by Pierre Koenig. Choose Le Corbusier, Koenig or another famous modern architect (It need not be an architect mentioned in the lecture course) and their photographer. Explain how they met, the architect’s philosophyRead MoreBiography Of Charles Edouard Jeanneret Gris1489 Words   |  6 PagesJeanneret-Gris was the target of global frustration, for his enlightened views on a new age of architecture were not ones that the early 20th century was willing to embrace. However, there were several voices that spanned from the decades of his life to the present day today, who uncovered t he man, the artist, the human being underneath the pseudonym of ‘Le Corbuiser’. Evidently, the voices that uncovered the workings of Le Corbuiser chose not to portray him as a one dimensional, systematic architect who followed

Compliance Laws and Regulations

Question: Case study about the "compliance law and regulation". Answer: Introduction For great catch business the steps in compliance are set up in the business law perspective. Compliance means that the business is in accordance to stipulated business rules and regulations to minimize risks. For the purposes of this Convention the terms "precautionary measures" or " food security measures" or " guarantee measures" are considered equivalent when used to indicate procedures or measures tending to guarantee the results or effects of current or future process as to the safety of foods to give to the customers. In instances of non-compliance the court may declare that this is limited only to some of the precautionary measures provided for therein. Steps in compliance laws and regulations The modification of the injunction and penalties for malicious or abusive requests shall be governed by the law of the place of performance Only if the affected justifies the absolute inappropriateness of the measure, or when the request is based on the impairment of the security lodged, the judge of the State of execution may lift such measure in accordance with its own law. Compliance with precautionary measures by the requested by the Australian food authority to get the certification certificate. The court that the execution of a a food order addressed may, without further ado and at the request of the Australian food authority, take the precautionary measures necessary, in accordance with its own law. When the preventive measure relates to food compliance, the judge or court requested may, with strictly territorial scope, effect the measure pending the final ruling at the court of the main process. Such declarations may be modified by subsequent declarations of the Australian f ood authority, which shall expressly indicate the territorial unit or units to which this Convention applies. Such subsequent declarations shall be transmitted to the food handlers like great catch and shall become effective thirty days after received. Sale of goods and consumer protection International Consumer marks sale of goods and consumer protection. This social movement, which began in the first half of the last century in Australia, watched his conquests were materializing in different degree protectionist regulations. This represented a conceptual clash between the business model that prevailed in the past century. Based on free enterprise, with another model in which it is justified to limit that freedom to a set of social obligations, whose beneficiary is the consumer, who is considered as the weak part of a consumer relationship. Therefore, as a business owner or independent food industry, you wonder why you have to meet a series of charges if the end of the day you want to offer services or products of high quality, beyond what the laws say. You feel suffocated because instead of dedicating yourself to your business and compete, you lose time and money in understanding and dealing with bureaucracy and paperwork. The starting point that justifies restrict ing the professional business freedoms or when the exercise of these, externalities arise whose costs are paid by consumers. Thus, the regulation seeks to prevent risks or abuses related to corporate activity affecting competition, equity ratio of consumption or physical integrity of consumers. These three aspects are what give pattern to a lot of restrictions, and worth to identify those that correspond to your business.. Food Standards Australia New Zealand is a legal and independent agency established by the Law of Food Standards Australia New Zealand Act 1991. By working in a legal and integrated power involving the governments of Australia and New Zealand system, we established regulations food for the two countries. FSA is part of the Ministry of Health and Senior Australian Government. In the other hand, we have the instance that better positioning on society and combat trade practices affecting equity or physical integrity of consumers ec:. In this instance you review are very broad aspects concerning adhesion contracts, advertising, commercial or industrial information, dispute settlement, industrial quality, gas stations, among many others. This is essential for your business is that you can draw and plan the best way for your regulatory compliance and is a formula to be more competitive. This means identifying the different obligations you have and take care of your business to comply with them. In addition, it identifies those regulations that are excessive or give guideline to arbitrary measures, and promote improvement. Undoubtedly, businesses must comply with regulations, but must demand that they 1do not disproportionately restrict entrepreneurial freedom, for only thus can build a path where it converges with consumer protection, through a culture of leg ality and compliance. Otherwise, we're just talking about bureaucracy without social benefit. Compliance in business culture The adaptation of a plan of compliance to different cultural environments in which we operate and to the diversity of our workforce is essential to facilitate the involvement of all in a true culture of compliance. cultural and linguistic adaptation of ethical codes of conduct and Compliance political adaptation to the cultural environment and the diversity of the workforce training and communication plans Compliance requirements in food industry In compliance with Royal Decree, of 18 February, on Sanitary General Registry of Food and Food Companies. the procedure of registration, modification or cancellation of companies or food establishments established in Spain is as follows:If the company or establishment has food facilities, it shall request the competent authority of the Autonomous Community where they are located, following the procedures established by it.If the company or property has no food facilities it shall request the competent authority of the Autonomous Community where its registered office is following the procedures established there. How to apply for a certificate? To request the issuance of a certificate of your company refer to: Procedure for requesting certificates. What Food products must be communicated to the competent authorities? Must communicate all presentations of products having the same composition as its main ingredients, flavors present differences, etc. The correct completion of this communication does not imply approval or authorization by the competent authorities of the marketing of products in Australia. The interested party may at the offices of the Administration to certify the completion of the permit application, to be provided with a receipt indicating the date of submission, accepting as proof a copy of the communication in containing the date recorded by the office receiving it. How to apply for the NHS? To apply for the award of identification code dietary foods for special medical purposes eligible for funding by the National Health System, it should address its request to, specifically the Office for the Promotion of Food Security. References Commercial insurance risks. (2008). Aberdeen, WA: Silver Lake Pub. 2003 protecting value study. (2003). [New York?]: Financial Executives Research Foundation. Hess, E. (2010). Smart growth. New York: Columbia Business School Pub. Kelly, D., Holmes, A. and Hayward, R. (2005). Business law. London: Cavendish. Kendrick, R. (2010). Cyber Risks for Business Professionals. Ely: IT Governance Pub. Atkinson, J. (2006). Private and public protection. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic. Gates, S. and Leuschner, K. (2008). In the name of entrepreneurship?. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Kahn, R. and Blair, B. (2009). Information nation. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley Pub. Latimer, P. (2006). Australian business law 2006. North Ryde, N.S.W.: CCH Australia. Latimer, P. (n.d.). Essential Australian business law. Loader, D. (2004). Regulation and compliance in operations. Amsterdam: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. Wulf, K. (2012). Ethics and compliance programs in multinational organizations. Wiesbaden: Springer Gabler.

Theories of Meaning free essay sample

The main concepts in the theory of reference are naming, truth, denotation (or truth of), and extension. Another is the notion of values of variables. All the notions of the theory of meaning are out of the same box. There are several theories of meaning, such as Referential Theory, Ideational Theory, Use Theory, and Behavioural Theory. 1. The Referential Theory The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. This theory was first expounded by Aristotle in the fourth century BC. It is generally possible to explain the meaning of a word by pointing to the thing it refers to. In the case of proper nouns and definite noun phrases, this is especially true. When we say The most famous English poet is William Shakespeare, we do use the most famous English poet and William Shakespeare to mean a particular person. We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of Meaning or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When we explain the meaning of desk by pointing to the thing it refers to, we do not mean a desk must be of the particular size, shape, colour and material as the desk we are pointing to at the moment of speaking. We are using this particular desk as an example, an instance, of something more general. That is, there is something behind the concrete thing we can see with our eyes. And that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. By saying desk is a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes, we are in resorting to the concept of desk, or summarizing the main features, the defining properties, of a desk. But not every word has a reference. Grammatical words like but, if, and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. What is more, it is not convenient to explain the meaning of a word in terms of the thing it refers to. The thing a word stands for may not always be at hand at the time of speaking. Even when it is nearby, it may take the listener some time to work out its main features. For example, when one sees a computer for the first time, one may mistake the monitor for its main component, thinking that a computer is just like a TV set. This Referential Theory of linguistic meaning would explain the significance of all expressions in terms of their having been conventionally associated with things or states of affairs in the world, and it would explain a human being’s understanding a sentence in terms of that person’s knowing what the sentence’s component words refer to. It is a natural and appealing view. Indeed it may seem obviously correct, at least so far as it goes. And one would have a hard time denying that reference or naming is our cleanest-cut and most familiar relation between a word and the world. Yet when examined, the Referential Theory has some problems: * Not every word refers to an actual thing. First, some words don’t refer to anything that exists. â€Å"Pegasus† does not denote anything real, because there is no winged horse after all * Referential Theory treats a sentence as a list of names for things to which the words refer. But a list of names says nothing: â€Å"William Shakespeare England† The meaning cannot be understood, if the sentence is not grammatically correct. * There is more to meaning than reference. Some words can refer to the same thing but not share the same meaning, for example â€Å"Elizabeth II† and â€Å"the Queen. † 2. The Ideational (Mental Image) Theory The 17th-century British linguist John Locke held that linguistic meaning is mental: words are used to encode and convey thoughts, or ideas. Successful communication requires that the hearer correctly decode the speaker’s words into their associated ideas. The meaning of an expression, according to Locke, is the idea associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows and understands that expression. This theory of meaning associates the meaning of a particular word with a particular idea in the human mind. But the ideational account of meaning, as Locke’s view is sometimes called, is vulnerable to several objections. For example, a person’s idea of â€Å"grass† can be associated in his mind with the idea of â€Å"warm weather†. But the meaning of â€Å"grass† or any other word may be different for each person. As the example shows, the ideational account ignores the â€Å"public† nature of meaning. Whatever meanings are, they must be things that different speakers can learn from and share with one another. If we suppose that a person associates the complex expression â€Å"brown cow† with the idea of fear, though he is not fearful of all brown things or of all cows—only brown cows. Thus, the meaning of â€Å"brown cow†, for this person, is not determined by or predictable from the meanings of â€Å"brown† and â€Å"cow†. Because the example can be generalized (anyone can associate any idea with any complex expression), it follows that the ideational account is unable to explain the compositionality of natural languages. These mental representations differ a lot among different persons. If one person hears the word strawberry, an image of an appetizing dessert plate – possibly covered with lots of whipped cream – might pop up. Another person might prefer them with powder sugar, and another one without any topping at all. Or one might even be disgusted by the idea of strawberries, because of a severe allergic reaction in the past. To be practically usable, the ideas need to have some generality, exceeding the individual level. But it is difficult to achieve this generalization without resorting to the notion of idea in the platonic sense that is somehow mysteriously present in people’s minds. A mental image theory cannot assure that speakers of the same language carry the same mental image for any given concept. To the extent that one speaker’s mental image of a â€Å"grandmother† is different from that of another speaker, the theory cannot explain our ability to communicate via language. A mental image theory predicts the possibility that every speaker has their own private language. If mental images do not supply the critical distinctions necessary for meaning another possibility would be that humans rely on a set of innate semantic features to construct meaning. The mental images we have for simple properties (such as red, hot, sour, etc. ) can never be stated. We simply cannot describe the meaning of the word â€Å"red† by using other words. If we could, then someone who has been blind since birth would know what red means by hearing a description of our mental image, which is impossible. 3. The Use Theory A radically different theory of meaning qualifies the meaning of an expression as its use in a language system. The Use Theory was developed in the 20th century be Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Austin. The Use Theory of meaning does not refer to an external entity (a referent, an idea, or stimuli and responses) to qualify a word’s meaning, but instead qualifies the meaning of a word as the value it gets through the linguistic system in which it is used. Many words do refer to things, and that many words have a mental image or idea associated with them, but the primary bearers of meaning are not words but sentences. Words have meaning only when they are used in sentences: without such a context they have no meaning. When we ask what some particular word means, we seem to be asking from the way it’s used in the sentence. In fact, the only meaning a word can have is the meaning it gains from the meaning of the sentences in which the word is typically used. The following sentences show how the different meanings of a word are expressed by using that word in different sentences: I gave him a hand with his baggage. (i. e. help) The crowd gave him a hand. (i. e. applause) Please hand me the scissors. (i. e. give) She is a green lawyer. (i. e. inexperienced) He is looking green. i. e. nauseous) We had a green Christmas last year. (i. e. without snow) But if the meaning of sentences is primary and the meaning of words is derivative – we cannot derive the meaning of a sentence from the meanings of sentences. Wittgenstein and Austin held that the meaning of sentences is to be found in their use. Language is a tool, and just as we don’t really know what a hammer is until we know what i t is being used to do. In order to know what a particular sentence means we need to ask, â€Å"What is this speaker in this particular context using this sentence? If someone says â€Å"Hold it†, we cannot know what the sentence means until we know what the speaker means. Did the speaker say â€Å"Hold it† to get someone to stop doing something, or to instruct someone to grasp hold of an object? Only when we have answered this question, we will know what the sentence means. It is important to pay attention to the context, for the context typically gives us the clues we need to determine what the speaker is using a sentence to do, and what the sentence means. There are various contextual features we can make use of, such as the social setting, the speaker’s personal goals, the nature and expectations of the audience, and what has just been said by other speaker. Changing the context of a sentence can sometimes dramatically affect its meaning. For example: The queen is in a vulnerable position: (a) when said by a spectator at a chess match and (b) when said by a teacher in a lecture on the role of monarchy in Britain. The President has been shot and died a few minutes ago: (a) when said by a character in a film and (b) when said by a radio announcer in a news broadcast. Let me go: (a) when said by a person whose arm has been grabbed by someone and (b) when said by a child, whose teacher has asked for a volunteer to run an errand. More commonly context affects meaning in equally dramatic ways. Usually, there are only a few possible uses of a sentence in any particular context, and we can make reasonable judgment of its primary or intended use. 4. The Behavioural (Speech-Act) Theory Speech act theory is built on the foundation laid by Wittgenstein and Austin. John Searle is most often associated with the theory. The Speech-Act theory is a theory where the effect of an utterance is analyzed in relationship to the speaker and listener’s behaviour. According to Searle, to understand language one must understand the speaker’s intention. Since language is intentional behaviour, it should be treated like a form of action. Thus Searle refers to statements as speech acts. The speech act is the basic unit of language used to express meaning, an utterance that expresses an intention. Normally, the speech act is a sentence, but it can be a word or phrase as long as it follows the rules necessary to accomplish the intention. When one speaks, one performs an act. Speech is not just used to designate something, it actually does something. Speech act stresses the intent of the act as a whole. Understanding the speaker’s intention is essential to capture the meaning. Without the speaker’s intention, it is impossible to understand the words as a speech act. Speakers perform acts by observing two types of rules: constitutive rules or definition rules (create or define new forms of behaviour) and regulative or behaviour rules (these rules govern types of behaviour that already exist). Theory of meaning that holds that the meaning of linguistic expressions can be explained in terms of the rules governing their use in performing various speech acts (e. g. , asserting, commanding, exclaiming, promising, questioning, requesting, warning). In contrast to theories that maintain that linguistic expressions have meaning in virtue of their contribution to the truth conditions of sentences where they occur, it explains linguistic meaning in terms of the use of words and sentences in the performance of speech acts. The meaning of a natural language is behaviouristic: the meaning of an expression, as uttered on a particular occasion, is either the behavioural stimulus that produces the utterance, the behavioural response that the utterance produces, or a combination of both. Thus, the meaning of â€Å"fire! † as uttered on a particular occasion might include running or calling for help. But even on a single occasion it is possible that not everyone who hears â€Å"fire! † will respond by running or calling for help. Suppose, for example, that the hearers of the utterance include a fireman, a pyromaniac, and a person who happens to know that the speaker is a pathological liar, the behaviour of each person is different, because the meaning of â€Å"fire! † for some is different from the meaning of â€Å"fire! † for those who run or call for help. Thus, the situations which prompt people to utter speech, include every object and happening in their universe. In order to give a scientifically accurate definition of meaning for every form of a language, we should have to have a scientifically accurate knowledge of everything in the speaker’s world. Conclusion All four theories consider the referential aspects, the individual aspects, and the social aspects. The theories of meaning are evidently short of detail on several important issues, for example, the public understanding of notions, the role of context and how it functions in determining meaning, the constraints on wide frameworks, and the types of ambiguity that the theories have. There is much more, of course, to a natural language than merely being a symbolic system; such a language may even amount, through associated features. Different theories elaborate on these in different ways and to different degrees. Bibliography 1. D. Davidson. Theories of Meaning and Learnable Languages. Oxford, 1984. 2. G. Evans . Truth and Meaning. Oxford, 1976. 3. M. Platts. Ways of Meaning. London, 1979. 4. R. Dale. The Theory of Meaning. London, 1996. 5. W. Hughes. Critical Thinking. London, 2006. Contents Introduction 1. The Referential Theory 2. The Ideational (Mental Image) Theory 3. The Use Theory 4. The Behavioural (Speech-Act) Theory Conclusion Bibliography